Full Set of Aqa A2 Tectonics Notes Free Essays

FULL SET OF NOTES ON TECHTONICS 2012 AQA GEOGRAPHY FULL SET OF NOTES ON TECHTONICS 2012 AQA GEOGRAPHY TECHTONICS| TOPICS| UNDERSTOOD/COVERED? | PLATE MOVEMENT| | SEISMICITY| | VULCANICITY | | These notes were copied from an AQA textbook. They contain EVERYTHING you need to know for the exam for the tectonics section. You WILL however, need to use your own case studies as these are not included. We will write a custom essay sample on Full Set of Aqa A2 Tectonics Notes or any similar topic only for you Order Now You will need 2 case studies for volcanoes, and 2 case studies for earthquakes. You ideally need to have one LEDC and one MEDC for each. You could use Iceland and Pinatubo for the volcanoes; and Haiti and Japan for the earthquakes These notes were copied from an AQA textbook. They contain EVERYTHING you need to know for the exam for the tectonics section. You WILL however, need to use your own case studies as these are not included. You will need 2 case studies for volcanoes, and 2 case studies for earthquakes. You ideally need to have one LEDC and one MEDC for each. You could use Iceland and Pinatubo for the volcanoes; and Haiti and Japan for the earthquakes CORE- size of mars, densest part, made of rocks of iron and nickel. Rigid pper mantle, apart from this most of the mantle is semi molten with temperatures near the core reaching 5000 degrees. These high temperatures generate convection currents. Thinnest layer is the crust which has the coolest less dense rocks. These rocks are rich In silicon o2 aluminium potassium and sodium. TWO TYPES OF CRUST: Oceanic and continental. Composed of mainly sedimentary, metamorph ic and igneous rocks. Continental crust can be 70km thick. CORE- size of mars, densest part, made of rocks of iron and nickel. Rigid upper mantle, apart from this most of the mantle is semi molten with temperatures near the core reaching 5000 degrees. These high temperatures generate convection currents. Thinnest layer is the crust which has the coolest less dense rocks. These rocks are rich In silicon o2 aluminium potassium and sodium. TWO TYPES OF CRUST: Oceanic and continental. Composed of mainly sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Continental crust can be 70km thick. PLATE TECHTONIC THEORY: People had noticed that certain continents looked like they had once fitted together. Evidence built up over time and Alfred Wegner was allowed to publish his theory. He suggested that they were once all joined and called Pangaea. Wegner proposed that at some time land had drifted apart. Evidence included: 1)Continental fit: seemed to fit together if placed besides each other. 2) Geological Evidence: rocks of the age and type are found in SE Brazil and South Africa. The trends of mountains in East USA and NW Europe are similar when they are placed in old positions. Similar glacial deposits are found in Antarctica, S America 3) Climatological Evidence: Places as far apart as Antarctica, North America and the UK all contain coal deposits of similar age that were formed in tropical conditions. They are no longer in tropical climate zones and must have drifted apart. )Biological Evidence: Similar fossil formations are found on either side of the Antartic. Same reptile called meosaurus is found only in S America and South Africa sediments. Plant remains, PLATE TECHTONIC THEORY: People had noticed that certain continents looked like they had once fitted together. Evidence built up over time and Alfred Wegner was all owed to publish his theory. He suggested that they were once all joined and called Pangaea. Wegner proposed that at some time land had drifted apart. Evidence included: 1)Continental fit: seemed to fit together if placed besides each other. ) Geological Evidence: rocks of the age and type are found in SE Brazil and South Africa. The trends of mountains in East USA and NW Europe are similar when they are placed in old positions. Similar glacial deposits are found in Antarctica, S America 3) Climatological Evidence: Places as far apart as Antarctica, North America and the UK all contain coal deposits of similar age that were formed in tropical conditions. They are no longer in tropical climate zones and must have drifted apart. 4)Biological Evidence: Similar fossil formations are found on either side of the Antartic. Same reptile called meosaurus is found only in S America and South Africa sediments. Plant remains, LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTIVE MARGINS OCEANIC RIDGES: Where two plates pull apart there is a weaker zone in the crust and an increase in heat near the surface. The hotter expanded crust forms a ridge. The central part of the ridge may feature a central valley where a section of crust has subsided into the magma below. The split in the crust provides a low pressure zone where the more liquid lavas can erupt to form submarine volcanoes. If these eruptions persist, volcanoes may develop until they reach the surface. Islands can be formed. For instance Iceland a volcanic island on a spreading ridge. In 1963 eruptions created the island of surtsey to the south of Iceland. As crust is pushed away from the heat source at the mid ocean ridge it cools, contracts and sinks towards deeper regions. Where it becomes covered in fine sediments. Occasionally fragments of ocean floor are left at the surface during subduction and the layers of pillow basalts and later deep ocean sediments are exposed. E. g. Toodos ophilite suit in Cyprus. LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTIVE MARGINS OCEANIC RIDGES: Where two plates pull apart there is a weaker zone in the crust and an increase in heat near the surface. The hotter expanded crust forms a ridge. The central part of the ridge may feature a central valley where a section of crust has subsided into the magma below. The split in the crust provides a low pressure zone where the more liquid lavas can erupt to form submarine volcanoes. If these eruptions persist, volcanoes may develop until they reach the surface. Islands can be formed. For instance Iceland a volcanic island on a spreading ridge. In 1963 eruptions created the island of surtsey to the south of Iceland. As crust is pushed away from the heat source at the mid ocean ridge it cools, contracts and sinks towards deeper regions. Where it becomes covered in fine sediments. Occasionally fragments of ocean floor are left at the surface during subduction and the layers of pillow basalts and later deep ocean sediments are exposed. E. g. Toodos ophilite suit in Cyprus. RIFT VALLEYS: When spreading occurs beneath a major land mass, the heating and subsequent updoming of the crust leads to fracturing and rifting. As the sides of the rift move apart, central sections drop down to form rift valleys. Mount Kenya are surface evidence of the igneous activity beneath. As 4000km long up to 50km wide and 600m in depth. This feature can still widen allowing the sea to inundate it. To the North two rifts have widened into the red sea and the gulf of Arabia respectively. Here the rifting has continued and NEW OCEAN FLOOR is forming between Africa on the SW side and Arabia (NE). RIFT VALLEYS: When spreading occurs beneath a major land mass, the heating and subsequent updoming of the crust leads to fracturing and rifting. As the sides of the rift move apart, central sections drop down to form rift valleys. Mount Kenya are surface evidence of the igneous activity beneath. As 4000km long up to 50km wide and 600m in depth. This feature can still widen allowing the sea to inundate it. To the North two rifts have widened into the red sea and the gulf of Arabia respectively. Here the rifting has continued and NEW OCEAN FLOOR is forming between Africa on the SW side and Arabia (NE). Mid ocean ridges are irregular curving around the planet. If new ocean crust was created equally on both sides, it would appear to create the possibility of over lapping new crust on concave sections and divergence on convex sections. The fact that there are no mountains of ocean floor or sudden gaps in crust is explained by the fact that the seemingly continuous spreading ridges are frequently bisected by transform (slip) faults, which allow the crust created at the ridges to move outwards at different rates. Seismicity associated with such movements on and around the ridges is characterised by shallow focus earthquakes. Mid ocean ridges are irregular curving around the planet. If new ocean crust was created equally on both sides, it would appear to create the possibility of over lapping new crust on concave sections and divergence on convex sections. The fact that there are no mountains of ocean floor or sudden gaps in crust is explained by the fact that the seemingly continuous spreading ridges are frequently bisected by transform (slip) faults, which allow the crust created at the ridges to move outwards at different rates. Seismicity associated with such movements on and around the ridges is characterised by shallow focus earthquakes. LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGINS Destructive plate margins are found where plates converge. There are three types of convergent margin: 1)Oceanic plate meeting continental plate )Oceanic plate meeting oceanic plate 3)Continental plate meeting continental plate LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGINS Destructive plate margins are found where plates converge. There are three types of convergent margin: 1)Oceanic plate meeting continental plate 2)Oceanic plate meeting oceanic plate 3)Continental plate meeting continental plate 1) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING OCEANIC PLATE (CO NVERGING) When two pieces of oceanic crust on DIFFERENT PLATES COLLIDE one is subducted beneath the other. The crust that has subducted may be marginally denser or one is moving faster than the other. The processes that accompany subduction are much the same as in the case of ocean/continental plate collision, BUT where the volcanoes usually erupt on crust covered by oceans they form islands. These form characteristically curving lines of new volcanic land known as island arcs with deep ocean trenches. Such island chains may develop over millions of years to become major land e. g. JAPAN OR INDONESIA. Subduction produces frequent shallow- to deep focus earthquakes, some of which are immensely powerful. e. g. In Indonesia where the Australian plate is being subducted beneath Eurasian plate there was an earthquake in 2004 measuring 9 on Richter scale. 2) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING OCEANIC PLATE (CONVERGING) When two pieces of oceanic crust on DIFFERENT PLATES COLLIDE one is subducted beneath the other. The crust that has subducted may be marginally denser or one is moving faster than the other. The processes that accompany subduction are much the same as in the case of ocean/continental plate collision, BUT where the volcanoes usually erupt on crust covered by oceans they form islands. These form characteristically curving lines of new volcanic land known as island arcs with deep ocean trenches. Such island chains may develop over millions of years to become major land e. g. JAPAN OR INDONESIA. Subduction produces frequent shallow- to deep focus earthquakes, some of which are immensely powerful. e. g. In Indonesia where the Australian plate is being subducted beneath Eurasian plate there was an earthquake in 2004 measuring 9 on Richter scale. 3) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING CONTINENTAL PLATE (CONVERGING) Oceanic crust is denser than continental. When plates collide the oceanic crust is SUBDUCTED or taken down into the upper mantle. As oceanic crust descends, friction with the overlying continental crust builds up and can cause MAJOR EARTHQUAKES. Destructive margins are some of the most seismically active zones in the world. Rocks scraped off the descending plate and folding of the continental crust helps to create young fold mountain chains on the edge of continental masses such as THE ANDES (South America). Deep ocean trenches are found along the seaward edge of destructive margins. They mark where one plates begins to descend beneath another. E. g Peru Chile 8km deep trench. The friction caused by the sinking slab of ocean floor also generates loads of heat leading to partial melting of the crust. Magmas derived from the melting of old ocean floor basalts. They try to rise up through fissures and by burning their way through overlying rock until they reach the surface. Where volcanoes erupt on land they help to create young fold mountains such as the Andes. Because magmas from which the volcanic lavas originate have incorporated elements of older crust and continental rocks as they rose, they are more silica rich and more acidic. These magmas flow less easily leave intrusive such as batholiths within mountains and generating extrusive such as andesitic lava to erupt through volcanoes. Such sticker lava frequently blocks off their own vents until erupting violently to form conical shaped volcanoes of alternating layers of ash and lava. Vulcanicity is a key feature of subduction zones, around 80% of all active volcanoes are found around subduction zones. 4) OCEANIC PLATE MEETING CONTINENTAL PLATE (CONVERGING) Oceanic crust is denser than continental. When plates collide the oceanic crust is SUBDUCTED or taken down into the upper mantle. As oceanic crust descends, friction with the overlying continental crust builds up and can cause MAJOR EARTHQUAKES. Destructive margins are some of the most seismically active zones in the world. Rocks scraped off the descending plate and folding of the continental crust helps to create young fold mountain chains on the edge of continental masses such as THE ANDES (South America). Deep ocean trenches are found along the seaward edge of destructive margins. They mark where one plates begins to descend beneath another. E. g Peru Chile 8km deep trench. The friction caused by the sinking slab of ocean floor also generates loads of heat leading to partial melting of the crust. Magmas derived from the melting of old ocean floor basalts. They try to rise up through fissures and by burning their way through overlying rock until they reach the surface. Where volcanoes erupt on land they help to create young fold mountains such as the Andes. Because magmas from which the volcanic lavas originate have incorporated elements of older crust and continental rocks as they rose, they are more silica rich and more acidic. These magmas flow less easily leave intrusive such as batholiths within mountains and generating extrusive such as andesitic lava to erupt through volcanoes. Such sticker lava frequently blocks off their own vents until erupting violently to form conical shaped volcanoes of alternating layers of ash and lava. Vulcanicity is a key feature of subduction zones, around 80% of all active volcanoes are found around subduction zones. 5) CONTINENTAL PLATE/CONTINENTAL PLATE CONVERGENCE where subduction of oceanic crust draws two continental masses together, a collision margin may develop. As continents have similar density and thus buoyancy, they will not be subducted. Instead they collide with each other. Volcanic associated with earlier subduction and sediments scraped off the vanishing ocean floor are mixed up and compressed to form young fold mountain chains with deep roots in the lithosphere. The subcontinent of India is an example: It was propelled by sea floor spreading of the indo Eurasian plate some 40 million years ago. This collision formed the Himalayan mountain chain. Himalayas are constantly changing because these highly folded and faulted regions do not become seismically quiet after 1st impact. At this extreme altitude wreathing and erosion reduce mountain height, but isostatic lift in some areas produced by continuing plate motion means that Everest is increasing by 2. 5cm a year. The whole region experiences high levels of seismicity causing earthquakes in 2001, Afghanistan 2002, Pakistan 2005, and China 2008. [isostatic lift= uplift of land mass resulting from tectonic processes] 6) CONTINENTAL PLATE/CONTINENTAL PLATE CONVERGENCE where subduction of oceanic crust draws two continental masses together, a collision margin may develop. As continents have similar density and thus buoyancy, they will not be subducted. Instead they collide with each other. Volcanic associated with earlier subduction and sediments scraped off the vanishing ocean floor are mixed up and compressed to form young fold mountain chains with deep roots in the lithosphere. The subcontinent of India is an example: It was propelled by sea floor spreading of the indo Eurasian plate some 40 million years ago. This collision formed the Himalayan mountain chain. Himalayas are constantly changing because these highly folded and faulted regions do not become seismically quiet after 1st impact. At this extreme altitude wreathing and erosion reduce mountain height, but isostatic lift in some areas produced by continuing plate motion means that Everest is increasing by 2. 5cm a year. The whole region experiences high levels of seismicity causing earthquakes in 2001, Afghanistan 2002, Pakistan 2005, and China 2008. [isostatic lift= uplift of land mass resulting from tectonic processes] HOT SPOTS: Maps of volcano distribution indicate that although most active volcanoes are associated with divergent and convergent plate margins, others do not conform to this pattern. Hawaiian Islands are an example. Formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200km from the nearest plate boundary. Some geologists believe the long lived and stationary hot spots are the result of plumes of magma originating deep within the mantle. Others suggest they are created from far less depth and in fact are moving slowly. As basaltic shield volcanoes erupt through the drifting oceanic crust, they may build up from ocean floor to form an island over time. However they become part of the plate and are gradually moved away from the heat source. Some islands will become eroded by waves and form flat topped sea mounts called guyots. Newer volcanoes erupt over the hot sport and a new island is formed. This sequence can form a chain of islands A new island will form to SE of Hawaii when the Loihi submarine volcano builds up to sea level. HOT SPOTS: Maps of volcano distribution indicate that although most active volcanoes are associated with divergent and convergent plate margins, others do not conform to this pattern. Hawaiian Islands are an example. Formed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 3,200km from the nearest plate boundary. Some geologists believe the long lived and stationary hot spots are the result of plumes of magma originating deep within the mantle. Others suggest they are created from far less depth and in fact are moving slowly. As basaltic shield volcanoes erupt through the drifting oceanic crust, they may build up from ocean floor to form an island over time. However they become part of the plate and are gradually moved away from the heat source. Some islands will become eroded by waves and form flat topped sea mounts called guyots. Newer volcanoes erupt over the hot sport and a new island is formed. This sequence can form a chain of islands A new island will form to SE of Hawaii when the Loihi submarine volcano builds up to sea level. CONSERVATIVE MARGINS: These margins are sometimes referred to as passive or slip margins and occur where two plates meet and the direction of plate motion is parallel. Two examples: 1)San Andreas fault in Calafornia 2)Alpine Fault in New Zealand No crust is destroyed or created, although these areas of frequent seismic activity as the build up of friction as plates pass each other is released by earthquakes. THEY ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH ACTIVE VULCANISM. CONSERVATIVE MARGINS: These margins are sometimes referred to as passive or slip margins and occur where two plates meet and the direction of plate motion is parallel. Two examples: 1)San Andreas fault in Calafornia 2)Alpine Fault in New Zealand No crust is destroyed or created, although these areas of frequent seismic activity as the build up of friction as plates pass each other is released by earthquakes. THEY ARE NOT ASSOCIATED WITH ACTIVE VULCANISM. Earthquakes occur when a build up of pressure within the Earth’s crust is suddenly released and the ground shakes violently. The point within the crust where the pressure release occurs is known as the focus. This can be: 1) Shallow 0-70kmkm 2)Intermediate 70-300km 3)Deep 300-700km The seismic shock waves have their highest level of energy at the focus; energy decreases as the waves spread outwards. The place on the Earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicentre. It receives the highest amount of energy and so the most potentially dangerous location. Seismic waves travel out from the focus, there are three types of waves: 1)P Waves- (primary) are the fastest and shake the Earth backwards and forwards. These travel the fastest and move through solids and liquids. 2) S- Waves (Secondary) are slower and move with a sideways motion, shaking the Earth at right angles to the direction of travel. They cannot move through liquids but are more damaging. 3) Surface Waves- these travel near to the surface and slower than the two mentioned already they’re more destructive than either. They include L waves (long waves) which causes the ground to move sideways and Raleigh waves which make it move up and down. Earthquakes occur when a build up of pressure within the Earth’s crust is suddenly released and the ground shakes violently. The point within the crust where the pressure release occurs is known as the focus. This can be: 1) Shallow 0-70kmkm 2)Intermediate 70-300km 3)Deep 300-700km The seismic shock waves have their highest level of energy at the focus; energy decreases as the waves spread outwards. The place on the Earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicentre. It receives the highest amount of energy and so the most potentially dangerous location. Seismic waves travel out from the focus, there are three types of waves: 1)P Waves- (primary) are the fastest and shake the Earth backwards and forwards. These travel the fastest and move through solids and liquids. 2) S- Waves (Secondary) are slower and move with a sideways motion, shaking the Earth at right angles to the direction of travel. They cannot move through liquids but are more damaging. 3) Surface Waves- these travel near to the surface and slower than the two mentioned already they’re more destructive than either. They include L waves (long waves) which causes the ground to move sideways and Raleigh waves which make it move up and down. EARTHQUAKES EARTHQUAKES Magnitude and frequency: Magnitude is amount of energy released and is measured using a RICHTER SCALE. A logarithmic scale. An earthquake measuring 7. 6 is 10 times greater than one measuring 6. 6. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the 12 point Mercalli scale which reflects the effects of the event. Frequency of earthquake events varies greatly between seismically active regions (e. g Sunda Trench off SW coast of Indonesia) and seismic zones within the shield areas of ancient crust (Greenland) Seismometers are instruments that measure and record the shock waves created by earthquakes. They locate and measure the size of shock waves and are used in establishing patterns of seismic activity that may help predict future earthquakes. Aftershocks- are earthquakes that follow on from the main event and may last for months afterwards. They are generated by the Earth settling back after the disruption. Aftershocks in Indonesian earthquake of 2004 was followed by a series of aftershocks one being 6. 1 in magnitude. Magnitude and frequency: Magnitude is amount of energy released and is measured using a RICHTER SCALE. A logarithmic scale. An earthquake measuring 7. 6 is 10 times greater than one measuring 6. 6. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the 12 point Mercalli scale which reflects the effects of the event. Frequency of earthquake events varies greatly between seismically active regions (e. g Sunda Trench off SW coast of Indonesia) and seismic zones within the shield areas of ancient crust (Greenland) Seismometers are instruments that measure and record the shock waves created by earthquakes. They locate and measure the size of shock waves and are used in establishing patterns of seismic activity that may help predict future earthquakes. Aftershocks- are earthquakes that follow on from the main event and may last for months afterwards. They are generated by the Earth settling back after the disruption. Aftershocks in Indonesian earthquake of 2004 was followed by a series of aftershocks one being 6. 1 in magnitude. TSUNAMI: Enormous sea waves generated by disturbances on the sea floor. They are most often triggered by earthquakes and submarine landslides. Most devastating example occurred in December 2004 in Indonesia. TSUNAMI: Enormous sea waves generated by disturbances on the sea floor. They are most often triggered by earthquakes and submarine landslides. Most devastating example occurred in December 2004 in Indonesia. HUMAN IMPACT: Depends on population density and distance from the epicentre Primary Impacts: *Collapse of buildings, roads and bridges *disruption to gas, electricity and water supplies Some are primary effects- directly from the earthquake, some are secondary e. g. lectricity breaks so they cannot cook etc. Secondary include: *Fires from ruptured gas mains *Contaminated water *Loss of trade HUMAN IMPACT: Depends on population density and distance from the epicentre Primary Impacts: *Collapse of buildings, roads and bridges *disruption to gas, electricity and water supplies Some are primary effects- directly from the earthquake, some are secondar y e. g. electricity breaks so they cannot cook etc. Secondary include: *Fires from ruptured gas mains *Contaminated water *Loss of trade AVALANCHES LANDSLIDES: Where the slope failure occurs as a result of ground shaking. AVALANCHES LANDSLIDES: Where the slope failure occurs as a result of ground shaking. LIQUEFACTION: Violent disruption of the ground causes it to become liquid like. Such extreme shaking causes increased pore water pressure which reduces the effective stress and therefore reduces the shear strength of the soil so it fails more easily. Can cause the movement of groundwater. Even though the surface may appear dry, excess water will sometimes come to the surface through cracks bringing liquefied soil, creating ‘soil volcanoes’. This can cause damage to buildings and underground utilities. Buildings can sink as a result. In San Francisco where development has occurred on reclaimed land in the bay area, the ground is far more likely to fail due to liquefaction. It is estimated that $100,000 million worth of damage was caused by this secondary effect. LIQUEFACTION: Violent disruption of the ground causes it to become liquid like. Such extreme shaking causes increased pore water pressure which reduces the effective stress and therefore reduces the shear strength of the soil so it fails more easily. Can cause the movement of groundwater. Even though the surface may appear dry, excess water will sometimes come to the surface through cracks bringing liquefied soil, creating ‘soil volcanoes’. This can cause damage to buildings and underground utilities. Buildings can sink as a result. In San Francisco where development has occurred on reclaimed land in the bay area, the ground is far more likely to fail due to liquefaction. It is estimated that $100,000 million worth of damage was caused by this secondary effect. CASE STUDIES CASE STUDIES PROTECTION PROTECTION PREDICTION PREDICTION EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT Earthquakes are not evenly distributed over the planet; but instead, occur in broad, uneven belts. This is because the vast majority of earthquakes are related to plate motion and are therefore found around plate boundaries. *Most powerful are related to destructive margins where the descent of the oceanic crust creates frequent shallow to deep focus earthquakes. *Earthquakes at constructive margins are often submarine and usually distant from human habituation, presenting a relatively minor hazard. *Earthquakes at conservative margins where plates slip past each other a series of fault lines marks where the crust has failed catastrophically. San Andreas Fault for instance is not a single feature but a broad shatter zone of interrelated faults. In addition to this earthquakes occur in regions that do not appear to be near active plate margins. The earthquakes in China and central Asia occur along extensive lines of weakness related to the collision of India with the Eurasian plate over 50 million years ago. Earthquakes are not evenly distributed over the planet; but instead, occur in broad, uneven belts. This is because the vast majority of earthquakes are related to plate motion and are therefore found around plate boundaries. Most powerful are related to destructive margins where the descent of the oceanic crust creates frequent shallow to deep focus earthquakes. *Earthquakes at constructive margins are often submarine and usually distant from human habituation, presenting a relatively minor hazard. *Earthquakes at conservative margins where plates slip past each other a series of fault lines marks where the crust has f ailed catastrophically. San Andreas Fault for instance is not a single feature but a broad shatter zone of interrelated faults. In addition to this earthquakes occur in regions that do not appear to be near active plate margins. The earthquakes in China and central Asia occur along extensive lines of weakness related to the collision of India with the Eurasian plate over 50 million years ago. PREDICTION PREDICTION EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT Example of unreliable prediction: 1980’s along San Adreas fault in Calafornia studies of paterns led to predictions of an earthquake between 1988 and 1992. The predicted earthquake actually happened in 2004. China 1975 observations of changes in land elevation ground water levels and animal behaviour led to an evactuation warning the day before of a 7. magnitiude earthquake struck. This saved many lives. BUT there was no warning of the 1976 Tangshan earthquake 7. 6 mag which caused 250,000 fatalities. Example of unreliable prediction: 1980’s along San Adreas fault in Calafornia studies of paterns led to predictions of an earthquake between 1988 and 1992. The predicted earthquake actually happened in 2004. China 1975 observations of changes i n land elevation ground water levels and animal behaviour led to an evactuation warning the day before of a 7. 3 magnitiude earthquake struck. This saved many lives. BUT there was no warning of the 1976 Tangshan earthquake 7. 6 mag which caused 250,000 fatalities. Currently no reliable way to accurately predict when an earthquake will occur. BUT There are several methods: 1) Seismic Records- studying patterns of earthquakes and using these to predict the next event. Seismic shock waves are recorded on a seismometer or seismography. 2) Radon Gas Emissions- radon is an inert gas that is released from rocks such as granite at a faster rate when they are fractured by deformation. 3) Ground Water-deformation of the ground water can cause water levels to rise or fall. ) Remote sensing- some evidence that electromagnetic disturbances in atmosphere directly above areas about to have an earthquake can be detected. 5)Low frequency electromagnetic activity- detection of electromagnetic emissions transmitted from Earthquake regions satellite has made observations that show strong correlations between certain types of low frequency electromagnetic activity an d the seismically most active zones on the Earth. Sudden change in the ionosphere electron density and temperature were recorded a week before a 7. magnitude earthquake occurred in South Japan in September 2004. 6)Surveying movement across a fault line- known as levelling. Currently no reliable way to accurately predict when an earthquake will occur. BUT There are several methods: 1) Seismic Records- studying patterns of earthquakes and using these to predict the next event. Seismic shock waves are recorded on a seismometer or seismography. 2) Radon Gas Emissions- radon is an inert gas that is released from rocks such as granite at a faster rate when they are fractured by deformation. ) Ground Water-deformation of the ground water can cause water levels to rise or fall. 4) Remote sensing- some evidence that electromagnetic disturbances in atmosphere directly above areas about to have an earthquake can be detected. 5)Low frequency electromagnetic activity- detection of electromagneti c emissions transmitted from Earthquake regions satellite has made observations that show strong correlations between certain types of low frequency electromagnetic activity and the seismically most active zones on the Earth. Sudden change in the ionosphere electron density and temperature were recorded a week before a 7. 1 magnitude earthquake occurred in South Japan in September 2004. 6)Surveying movement across a fault line- known as levelling. Authorities focus on: 1)Making buildings/cities more earthquake resistant 2)Raising public awareness about disaster prevention via an education programme 3)Improving earthquake prediction *Better evacuation routes and sites to receive evacuees make cities better able to withstand the effects of the earthquake. To reduce the risk of fire after an earthquake Japanese government encourage the building of fire resistant buildings and advanced fire fighter facilities *All buildings have strict standards to be earthquake proof (New law in 2007 which ensure buildings are double checked to ensure they meet requirements) – problematic for construction firms *Focus on areas prone to earthquakes such as KOBE and or cities like Tokyo where people from all over the wo rld go to. Here there are real time equipment and dense observation methods. In dense populated areas such as Tokyo there are several buildings designed to be more resistant to earthquakes. (See below) Authorities focus on: 1)Making buildings/cities more earthquake resistant 2)Raising public awareness about disaster prevention via an education programme 3)Improving earthquake prediction *Better evacuation routes and sites to receive evacuees make cities better able to withstand the effects of the earthquake. To reduce the risk of fire after an earthquake Japanese government encourage the building of fire resistant buildings and advanced fire fighter facilities *All buildings have strict standards to be earthquake proof (New law in 2007 which ensure buildings are double checked to ensure they meet requirements) – problematic for construction firms *Focus on areas prone to earthquakes such as KOBE and or cities like Tokyo where people from all over the world go to. Here there are real time equipment and dense observation methods. In dense populated areas such as Tokyo there are several buildings designed to be more resistant to earthquakes. (See below) PROTECTION PROTECTION Citizens are advised to keep some supplies like food, water and blankets as well as first aid kits and emergency tools. Police info sheets ensure that people know what to do in each stage of an emergency. Smart meters are installed. These are fed seismic data to allow them to shut down gas supplies automatically in the event of an earthquake. Land use planning attempts to identify the areas at most risk and plan where to build schools and hospitals away from these areas. Insurance is available but even in rich countries like Japan few people are willing to pay for such specific cover. Only 7% of people of Kobe had insurance at the time of the earthquake in 1995. Citizens are advised to keep some supplies like food, water and blankets as well as first aid kits and emergency tools. Police info sheets ensure that people know what to do in each stage of an emergency. Smart meters are installed. These are fed seismic data to allow them to shut down gas supplies automatically in the event of an earthquake. Land use planning attempts to identify the areas at most risk and plan where to build schools and hospitals away from these areas. Insurance is available but even in rich countries like Japan few people are willing to pay for such specific cover. Only 7% of people of Kobe had insurance at the time of the earthquake in 1995. DEFINITION: EXTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma above the surface of the Earth INTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma below the surface of the Earth DEFINITION: EXTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma above the surface of the Earth INTRUSIVE ROCK- Igneous rock formed by the crystallisation of magma below the surface of the Earth BASALTIC (basic) LAVAS: – Originate largely from the upward movement of mantle material. They are most common along spreading ridges but are also found at hot spots and within more developed rift systems ANDESITIC (intermediate) LAVAS: – Are typical of destructive plate margins where crust is being destroyed RHYOLITIC (acid) LACAS: – Are most often found at destructive and collision margins. Pyroclastic material comprises a wide range of volcanic fragments from ash to larger volcanic bombs. They are characteristic of more gaseous phases of eruption, where the build up of gas beneath blocked volcanic vents creates a violent explosion, shredding the magma into finer particles. BASALTIC (basic) LAVAS: – Originate largely from the upward movement of mantle material. They are most common along spreading ridges but are also found at hot spots and within more developed rift systems ANDESITIC (intermediate) LAVAS: – Are typical of destructive plate margins where crust is being destroyed RHYOLITIC (acid) LACAS: – Are most often found at destructive and collision margins. Pyroclastic material comprises a wide range of volcanic fragments from ash to larger volcanic bombs. They are characteristic of more gaseous phases of eruption, where the build up of gas beneath blocked volcanic vents creates a violent explosion, shredding the magma into finer particles. EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust through which lava, ash and gases erupt. Molten rock beneath the surface is referred to as magma but once it is ejected at the surface it is called lava. At depths the enormous pressure upon hot rocks keeps them in a semi solid state. *Fissures and fractures in the crust create low pressure areas that allow some material beneath the crust to become molten and rise. *If these molten rocks reach the surface they are said to be extrusive but if they’re injected into the crust they are said to be intrusive. *But both are termed igneous. Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust through which lava, ash and gases erupt. Molten rock beneath the surface is referred to as magma but once it is ejected at the surface it is called lava. At depths the enormous pressure upon hot rocks keeps them in a semi solid state. *Fissures and fractures in the crust create low pressure areas that allow some material beneath the crust to become molten and rise. *If these molten rocks reach the surface they are said to be extrusive but if they’re injected into the crust they are said to be intrusive. *But both are termed igneous. SHAPE| Fissure Eruptions| Occur where an elongated crack in the crust allows lava to spill out over a large area. Found at spreading ridges where tension pulls the crust apart. E. Iceland in 1973. Found at rifts and early constructive margins. Made of: Basaltic Eruption: Gentle, persistent | | Shield Volcanoes| Made of basaltic rock and form gently sloping cones from layers of less viscous lava. Example: Mauna Loa in Hawaii (taller than mount Everest – from ocean floor). Found in hot spots where oceanic crust meets oceanic crust Eruptions: Gentle and predictable| | Composite Volcanoes| Most common found on land. Created by layers of ash from initial explosive phases of eruptions and subsequent layers of lava from the main eruption phases. E. g. Mount Etna and Vesuvius. (Italy) Rock type: Andesitic Location: Destructive Margins| | Acid or Dome Volcanoes| These are steep sided volcanoes formed from very viscous lava. As the lava cannot travel far it builds up convex cone shaped volcanoes. Lava may solidify in the vent| | Calderas| From when gases that have built up beneath a blocked volcanic vent result in a catastrophic eruption that destroys the volcanic summit, leaving an enormous crater where later eruptions may form smaller cones. | | ACTIVITY: Volcanoes have erupted in living memory DORMANT: Volcanoes have erupted within historical record EXTINCT: Volcanoes will not erupt again. ACTIVITY: Volcanoes have erupted in living memory DORMANT: Volcanoes have erupted within historical record EXTINCT: Volcanoes will not erupt again. With all volcanic regions, the majority of magma never reaches the surface but cools to form coarser grained igneous rocks beneath the ground. These rocks may contribute to surface geomorphology through uplift, erosion and expose at the surface. Batholiths form when large masses of magma cool very slowly producing coarse grained rocks. Where magma has been squeezed between existing strata it may form a sill (concordant) or a dyke (discordant). Dyke: A vertical intrusion with horizontal cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on contact with surrounding colder rock. Contracts and cracks, cuts cross bedding planes Batholiths: Being deep seated and surrounded by hot rock the magma cools slowly so that 1) large crystals form and 2) there is a large metamorphic contact zone Sill: A horizontal intrusion along bedding planes with vertical cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on outside on contact with surrounding rocks. Contracts and cracks. With all volcanic regions, the majority of magma never reaches the surface but cools to form coarser grained igneous rocks beneath the ground. These rocks may contribute to surface geomorphology through uplift, erosion and expose at the surface. Batholiths form when large masses of magma cool very slowly producing coarse grained rocks. Where magma has been squeezed between existing strata it may form a sill (concordant) or a dyke (discordant). Dyke: A vertical intrusion with horizontal cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on contact with surrounding colder rock. Contracts and cracks, cuts cross bedding planes Batholiths: Being deep seated and surrounded by hot rock the magma cools slowly so that 1) large crystals form and 2) there is a large metamorphic contact zone Sill: A horizontal intrusion along bedding planes with vertical cooling cracks. Cools rapidly on outside on contact with surrounding rocks. Contracts and cracks. *GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS: Even in areas where vulcanism does not produce active volcanoes water heated at depth in the crust by magma chambers can periodically escape as stream and hot water. A geyser is an intermittent turbulent discharge of superheated water ejected and accompanied by a vapour phase. *FUMAROLES: Are areas where superheated water turns to steam as it condenses on the surface. These features are typical of areas such as Solfatara in Italy where the mixture of steam and water mixed with sulphur rich gases gives rise to the collective name for these features of solfatara. *GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS: Even in areas where vulcanism does not produce active volcanoes water heated at depth in the crust by magma chambers can periodically escape as stream and hot water. A geyser is an intermittent turbulent discharge of superheated water ejected and accompanied by a vapour phase. *FUMAROLES: Are areas where superheated water turns to steam as it condenses on the surface. These features are typical of areas such as Solfatara in Italy where the mixture of steam and water mixed with sulphur rich gases gives rise to the collective name for these features of solfatara. Minor Extrusive Features Minor Extrusive Features How to cite Full Set of Aqa A2 Tectonics Notes, Papers

Unit 204 2.1 stls level 2 free essay sample

Children and young people can experience prejudice and discrimination in many ways. Prejudice is a cultural attitude which stereotypes individuals or groups because of their cultural, religious, racial, or ethnic background in a negative way. Prejudice and discrimination are aimed at both the individual and societal levels. After the Civil Rights movement of the 1960’s, our children are still growing up in a society where prejudice and intolerance is still happening. Although laws have been put into place and many attitudes have changed, discrimination based on racial, ethnic, and religious grounds remains a part of daily lives for children and families resulting in bullying, which can ruin their lives in the present and for the future. There are many other reasons why children and young people are discriminated against because they don’t fit in with what others see as ‘normal’. Racial discrimination This happens because the child’s/young person’s skin happens to be a different colour. We will write a custom essay sample on Unit 204 2.1 stls level 2 or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Disabilities Whether the disability is physical, mental or sensory, the child/young person will suffer from discrimination. Illness This could be any illness, diabetes where the child/young person may need to inject themselves, epilepsy, sickle cell or even a mental illness. Physical disfigurement The child/young person may have some sort of disfigurement whether on their face or other part of their body. Sexuality It can be very difficult for a young person to admit to their sexuality due to the prejudice and discrimination. Unit 204 2. 1 Equality, diversity and inclusion in work with children and young people Religion Regardless of what the religion is the child/young person will have discrimination towards them because of this. Travelers Some cultures do travel and the child has to move from school to school and make new friends, again this is different from the ‘norm’. This can sometimes happen to children/young people who have parents in the forces too. Single parents Some families only have one parent whether it’s the mum or the dad. Not like ‘normal’ families so another reason for prejudice and discrimination. Working parents Some parents work long hours and this could mean that though don’t do the school run or can’t turn up on days like sports day etc. This can work in the opposite way too when parent’s don’t work and possibly stay at home claiming benefits. Learning abilities Children/young people do learn at different rates, some are very fast and pick up things quickly and others are a little slower. Language Some children/young people don’t have English as their first language and will speak differently with an accent. Siblings Some children have lots of siblings, others have none, some are twins, triplets etc. all of this isn’t ‘normal’. The older sibling may have been better academically so the younger sibling is always being compared. Unit 204 2. 1 Equality, diversity and inclusion in work with children and young people Body image People are all built differently whether they are tall, short, fat, slim etc. Diets Some children/young people have different dietary requests, this could be because they are vegetarians, vegans etc. Age You can be discriminated against for being too old or too young. Area in which you live in This can play a big part as there could be prejudice and discrimination because you live in a rural area, a suburban area, a poor area and even a rich area.

Review of film Titanic by James Cameron

Given the fact that the semiotic significance of a particular movie cannot be discussed outside of the conventions of an affiliated socio-cultural discourse, reflected by the contained themes and motifs, it is fully explainable why it now represents a common practice among critics to refer to cinematographic pieces, as such that often advocate the socially constructed behavioral norms.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Review of film Titanic by James Cameron specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, because Western societies never ceased being stratified along a number of different cultural, social and ethnic lines, there is nothing particularly odd about the fact that many Hollywood films (especially the historical ones) are being concerned with exploring the motif of a socially upheld inequality among people, reflective of the specifics of their gender and class affiliation. The validity of this statement can be well explored in regards to the 1997 film Titanic, directed by James Cameron. After all, in this particular film, the director had made a deliberate point in exposing the existential stances, on the part of Titanic’s passengers, as such that corresponded perfectly well with the concerned people’s social perception of selves. For example, there is a memorable scene in this film, where Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio) ends up dining with first class passengers on the ship’s upper deck– quite contrary to the fact that, by virtue of being a third class passenger, he was not allowed to even approach close to these people. This, however, should not be perceived as an indication of the first class passengers’ ‘open-mindedness’ – by having Jack invited, they simply wanted to entertain themselves. This is because they expected Jack to prove himself being a rather unsophisticated individual, which in turn would help them to continue enjoy ing their privileged status, as such that has been dialectically predetermined. This, however, was not meant to happen, because while conversing with the moralistically minded ‘rich and powerful’, Jack was able to subtly expose their self-presumed ‘superiority’ being rather incidental, â€Å"Jack: I’ve got everything I need right here with me†¦ Just the other night I was sleeping under a bridge, and now here I am on the grandest ship in the world having champagne with you fine people† (01.00.32). Therefore, there is indeed a good reason in referring to Cameron’s film, as such that promotes a thoroughly humanistic idea that the measure of people’s actual worth has very little to do with what happened the extent of their material well-being.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The same can be said about how this film reflects u pon male-chauvinistic prejudices towards women, which appear to have been shared by not only the film’s many male but also female characters. For example, there is another notable scene in the movie, where Rose’s (Kate Winslet) mother Ruth (Frances Fisher) tries to convince her daughter that she had no other option but to agree marrying Cal Hockley (Billy Zane), despite the fact that there was no even a slightest hint of love between these two characters. According to Ruth, even though that forcing Rose to marry Cal stood in striking contradiction to her daughter’s desire, Rose had no good reason to complain about the situation, because it is fully natural for women to be willing to give in to the external circumstances, â€Å"Of course it’s unfair†¦ We’re women. Our choices are never easy (01.11.00). It is needless to mention, of course, that such Ruth’s point of view has been predetermined by what used be the realities of her patriar chal upbringing. Apparently, ever since her early years, Ruth was endowed with the belief that there was not anything unnatural about women being continually victimized by men. Nevertheless, it would be quite inappropriate to suggest that the philosophical appeal of Cameron’s film is being solely concerned with the fact that, while working on it, the director strived to expose the counterproductive essence of the early 20th century’s class-related and gender-related conventions. This is because, along with advancing the idea that there can be no rationale-based reasons for people to be discriminated against, on the basis of what happened to be the particulars of their biologically/socially defined self-identity, this film also helps viewers to adopt a thoroughly scientific outlook on the representatives of Homo Sapiens species. That is, contrary to what it being assumed by the religious /moralistic individuals, the watching of Cameron’s film leaves very few doub ts, as to the fact that people are essentially primates, who rely predominantly on the workings of their unconscious psyche, when it comes to addressing the life’s most acute challenges. The validity of this suggestion can be well illustrated in regards to the film’s final scenes, in which fashionably dressed gentlemen from the upper deck, try to make their way to the lifeboats, while trampling the bodies of women and children. Because earlier in the film, these men having been shown to treat the same women in a particularly gallant manner, viewers’ exposure to the ‘sinking’ scenes naturally predisposes them to think that the extent of people’s affiliation with the values of a ‘civilized living’ can be best defined rather negligible.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Review of film Titanic by James Cameron specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is because, as it was shown in the Titanic, people’s foremost existential agenda in being solely concerned with the ensuring of their physical survival. Once, they are being put in a life-threatening situation, the considerations of religion, morality and behavioral etiquette, on their part, instantaneously disappear into the thin air, while prompting them to act in a manner, fully consistent with what these people really are, in the biological sense of this word – hairless apes. Therefore, it is quite impossible to agree with Allan Johnson, who promote the idea that the very notion of competitiveness should be regarded ‘inappropriate’, because it reminds emotionally sensitive individuals the politically incorrect truth that there is a ‘monkey’, residing deep inside of them, â€Å"I don’t play Monopoly anymore, mostly because I don’t like the way I behave when I do. When I used to play Monopoly, I’d try to win, even against my own childre n, and I couldn’t resist feeling good when I did (we’re supposed to feel good) even if I also felt guilty about it† (17). It appears that, while coming up with this statement, Johnson remained unaware of the simple fact that one’s ability to compete with others for the limited resources, defines his or her chances of attaining a social prominence. Therefore, prompting people to refrain from behaving in accordance with the basic laws of nature, which endorse competition, cannot result in anything but in reducing the extent of their existential fitness. Therefore, it will only be logical, on our part, to conclude this paper by reinstating once again that the measure of just about film’s educational/philosophical worth should not only be assessed in regards to how this film helps viewers to realize the counterproductive essence of socially upheld prejudices (such as the assumption of women’s ‘inferiority’). In order for a particular movie to be considered enlightening, it also needs to encourage viewers to come to terms with what can be considered the discursive significance of their biological constitution – even if this is being accomplished at the expense of revealing the conceptual fallaciousness of politically correct dogmas. Because the themes and motifs, explored in Cameron’s movie, appear fully consistent with these two provisions, there is indeed a good reason to refer to this particular film thoroughly progressive. Works Cited Johnson, Allan. The Forest and the Trees: Sociology as Life, Practice and  Promise. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997. Print. Titanic. Ex. Prod. James Cameron. Los Angeles, CA.: 20th Century Fox. 1997. DVD.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This essay on Review of film Titanic by James Cameron was written and submitted by user Hot Ferret to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Morality DOES Need Religion essays

Morality DOES Need Religion essays In his essay, C. Stephen Layman clashes two views of morality: that of the secular point of view and the religious point of view. Layman starts out by defining the two different stances. The secular point of view states that there is no after life and that morality was an emergent phenomenon. Also, the only goods are those that can be found on the earth. The religious perspective states that there is life after death, and therefore the goods one receives do not end with death. Also, morality was not an emergent phenomenon because God has always been in existence and God guides morality. Layman uses these two definitions to argue that morality does not make sense from the secular point of view and that morality really does need religion. Layman starts out by asking the question do we desert the moral point of view if we defend morality on the grounds that it pays? To answer this question, Layman states that we must start by defining the difference between the justification of an institution and the justification of a particular act within that institution. Layman uses the examples of etiquette and baseball to do this. He then asks the question that sets up the rest of his argument: does morality pay? He then gives four reasons why morality doesnt pay from the secular perspective. In Laymans terms, from the secular perspective, it is unclear why moral concern must extend beyond ones society. Also, in the secular perspective, one can break morality rules in secret. It is here that Layman inserts the notion that one cant break rules in secret from the religious view because God sees all. Layman points out that morality doesnt pay for everyone in the secular perspective because there are those free-loaders that will benefit although they are not moral. Laymans last argument is that from the secular point o ...

Present Status and Future Development of Marketing at Nike Assignment

Present Status and Future Development of Marketing at Nike - Assignment Example Additionally, Nike’s marketing strategy has continued to evolve through diversification. For example, when Nike’s sales started to stagnate in 1988, it realized that solely focusing marketing efforts on specific market segments â€Å"could only grow sales and profits so far† (Hill & Jones, 2009). As a result, Nike diversified market development into other areas such as aerobics, golf, and basketball and implemented the 4Ps marketing mix; namely product, price, place, and promotion (Pride & Ferrell, 2008). Furthermore, Nike’s marketing strategy also involved entering new markets by purchasing established footwear companies such as Converse and Cole Haan (Hill & Jones, 2009, p.200). In addition to diversifying, Nike’s marketing strategy has been dramatically redefined in the 21st century as a result of the interrelationship between globalization and the e-commerce business model (Pride & Ferrell, 2008). The incoming of the second media age and multiple digital platforms have created new societal trends and business opportunities through the multimedia business model, which has challenged pre-existing methods of information dissemination. On one side of the spectrum, this has led to increasing commercialization of the customer, which is further reflected by changing consumer habits and multi-chain retail strategy (Vollmer & Precourt, 2008). On the other side of the spectrum, the digital era has redefined how the people interact with each other, thereby marking a shift in societal relationships and trends, which in turn informs cultural norms and enables innovation in building consumer/business relationships. Appurtenant to the digital revolution has been the radicalization of communication modes, with the inception of chat rooms, email, instant messaging and blogs.  

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 9

None - Essay Example The authors also raise different concepts on the characteristics of a good teacher. While Addams is of the opinion that being well- informed is the primary and most important trait in a good teacher, Count feels that courage, vision and intelligence are paramount. The authors feel that though the student is often neglected in the formulation of a curriculum, their ideas and feelings should be incorporated and should be based on the teacher’s opinion as they get to have a one-on-one interaction and are therefore best suited to convey the students wishes since it is a practical impossibility to get the student’s views directly. The authors also appreciate the many roles that education has on the life of the learner. In Addams’ view, education should instill in the child a culture that is universally acceptable and also instill family values in them in addition to leading them to their future careers. If curricula are well formulated, then Addams ideals can become a

Problems Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Problems - Assignment Example Since the producers are producing Q3, their revenue will rise substantially since all their produce is sold off. On the other hand, consumers would only consume Q2; implying that they are in the same position as before. The loss experienced by taxpayers result from the fact that they are the one financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through payment of higher taxes (David, 2003). b) When the price floor is at $10, new market price will be 10 dollars. This is because the price floor is binding. Taking into consideration that the quantity demanded of Frisbees are only 2 million at a price floor of 10 dollars, 2 million is the quantity demanded. The imposition of tax drives a wedge of 2 dollars between the supply and demand. Consumers pay price P2 whereas producers pay P-$2. Due to increase in price, the quantity of beer sold decreases to Q2 (David, 2003). b) The demand curve for typewriters, substitute goods, will shift to the left as a result of decrease in the computer price (David, 2003). Thus increase in the supply of computers will decrease the demand of typewriters. Hence typewriters producers should be sad. Both quantity supplied and price will decrease. d) Yes, the analysis do explain why software producer Bill Gates is one of the richest men. With advancement in technology, cheaper computers are made making people want more user-friendly software and operating systems. Thus Bill Gates who produce most popular operating systems and software make a lot of money from